2.3 预设触发语
预设可以以话语中的某些词语、某些句式为基础进行推理,这些能作为预设基础的词项或表层结构形式就叫作“预设触发语”(presupposition triggers)。Karttunen曾收集了31种预设的语言表达形式,Levinson(1983)介绍了其中的13种,主要包括:
(1)定指表达成分,预设所指事物存在,主要包括:①专有名词;②代词+名词;③指+量+名;④wh-phrases;
(2)叙实动词,触发预设宾语小句表述的是事实,如know、regret、realize;
(3)含义动词,如forget、manage、avoid等,以动词所具有的某种暗含意义作为预设信息,如forget触发预设“该做某事(而实际未做)”,“compensate”触发预设“一方行为使另一方受到了损失”;
(4)状态变化动词,如stop触发预设“某动作曾处于进行状态中”,状态变化动词还有start、begin、continue、finish、leave等;
(5)评判动词,触发预设宾语小句表述的是事实,如accuse、charge、criticize等;
(6)重复意义动词,触发预设“某动作、事件、状态曾经存在过”,如repeat、restore、return等;
(7)时间状语从句,如when、after、as、before、during、while、since引导的从句触发预设状语小句表述的是事实;
(8)比较和对比结构,如“Jack is a better teacher than Mary”预设“Mary is a teacher”;
(9)非限制性关系从句,如“My cousin,who is an engineer,went to Europe last week”预设“My cousin is an engineer”;
(10)分裂句,如“It was Jane who called this morning”预设“Someone called this morning”;
(11)非真实性条件从句(counterfactual conditions),如“If she had not missed the bus,she would not have been late”预设“She had missed the bus”;
(12)疑问句,如“Who is in the classroom?”预设“Someone is in the classroom”;
(13)标记,即说话人可以通过转移句子的重音来强调某一部分,所强调内容不同,预设也不同。如“He read English in the classroom”,重音在English上和在classroom上会分别触发不同的预设。