回顾过去一个半世纪的俄美关系——那时这一关系并非世界政治最为关键的问题,有什么模式会从中显露出来吗?有一个模式似乎特别突出:

只要是俄国人和美国人出于世界地位的考虑而最大化地追逐利益,彼此之间就很少有冲突。不论是在19世纪的大部分时间里反对英国,或是在20世纪前半叶两次反对德国,还是自1945年起为避免相互毁灭的真实威胁而以某种方式设法维护和平,尽管两国国内制度存在根本性差异,但共同威胁仍促进了合作。我们可能发现,这种合作并不易于商定或维持。曾经几度,某一方期望合作以不同的方式进行,或期望合作产生不同的结果。但事实却是,当我们不得不合作时我们进行了合作,这一事实本身就足以说明我们的最终利益所在。

我们两个国家的敌对,最经常是因一方设法改变另一方的内部制度而起,而不是由我们内部制度的差异所致,尽管这些差异是实际存在的。双方在过去都曾做出过此类努力:美国以普遍关切人权的方式,苏联则以号召世界革命的方式。就实现这些野心勃勃的目标而言,没有一方是成功的或看似成功的。但通过将这些内部关注扩展到外部,我们设法让那些在世界政治上追求共同利益的行动比以前更为困难。

我们无须深究在多大程度上这一倾向今天仍在持续,而只能期望,钟摆将会及时回摆,更大程度地意识到历史昭示我们的共同责任,远离我们共同设法改变对方的不良习惯。

注释

[1] 在本章的大量行文中,我将使用“俄美关系”(Russian-Amercian relations)这一术语,这样做纯粹是为了方便。我充分认识到,就所涉及的国家和人民而言,无论“俄罗斯”还是“美国”都不精确,或者说并非令人满意的概括。

[2] Foster Rhea Dulles,The Road to Teheran: The Story of Russia and America,1781—1943(Princeton: 1944),p.261.

[3] Thomas A.Bailey,America Faces Russia: Russian-American Relations from Early Times to Our Own Day(Ithaca: 1950),p.355.

[4] 关于近期的例子的相反的观点参见Nikolai V.Sivachev and Nikolai N.Yakovlev,Russia and the United States,translated by Olga Adler Titelbaum(Chicago: 1979);以及John Lewis Gaddis,Russia,the Soviet Union,and the United States: An Interpretive History(New York: 1978)。

[5] N.N.Bolkhovitinov,The Beginnings of Russian-American Relations: 1775—1815,translated by Elena Levin(Cambridge,Massachusetts: 1975),p.355.

[6] Sivachev and Yakovlev,Russia and the United States,p.9.

[7] Buchanan to Robert Livingston,June 29,1832,Department of State Records,National Archives microfilm M-35,reel 12.

[8] Ibid.

[9] 对这一被忽视的主题的最好论述参见Alan Dowty,The Limits of American Isolation: The United States and the Crimean War(New York: 1971)。也可参见Kenneth Bourne,Britain and the Balance of Power in North America,1815—1908(Berkeley: 1967),pp.170—205。

[10] D.P.Crook,The North,the South,and the Powers,1861—1865(New York: 1974),pp.223—227,252—253.

[11] 1823年美国通过《门罗宣言》宣称对太平洋西北部的权利时,正是类似的考虑使俄罗斯人没有提出质疑。

[12] 这一结论的基础参见Hans Rogger,“America Enters the Twentieth Century: The View from Russia,1895—1915”,这是为1984年6月在基辅举办的第五届苏联和美国历史学家座谈会所准备的论文。

[13] 对这一问题仍未被超越的经典论述参见Edward H.Zabriskie,American-Russian Rivalry in the Far East: A Study in Diplomacy and Power Politics(Philadelphia: 1946)。但还可参见Pauline Tompkins,American-Russian Relations in the Far East(New York: 1949)。

[14] 相互对立的观点最明显地体现在George F.Kennan, American Diplomacy,1900—1950(Chicago: 1951); and William Appleman Williams,The Tragedy of American Diplomacy,Revised Edition(New York: 1962)。最中性的论述是Marilyn Blatt Young,The Rhetoric of Empire: American China Policy,1895—1901(Cambridge,Massachusetts: 1968)。

[15] 关于这一点参见Raymond A.Esthus,Theodore Roosevelt and the International Rivalries(Waltham,Massachusetts: 1970),pp.28—31。

[16] Walter V. and Marie V.Scholes,The Foreign Policies of the Taft Administration(Columbia,Missouri: 1970),pp.109—248.

[17] 对这一传统最明确的表述是John Quincy Adams's Independence Day address,July 4,1821,引自E.H.Tatum,The United States and Europe,1815—1823: A Study in the Background of the Monroe Doctrine(Berkeley: 1936),pp.241—245。

[18] D.A.Graber,Crisis Diplomacy: A History of U.S.Intervention Policies and Practices(Washington: 1959),pp.51—62.也可参见Donald S.Spencer,Louis Kossuth and Young America: A Study of Sectionalism and Foreign Policy,1848—1852(Columbia,Missouri: 1977)。

[19] John Kutolowski,“The Effect of the Polish Insurrection of 1863 on American Civil War Diplomacy,” The Historian,Vol.27(August,1965),560—577.

[20] 参见Ann E.Healy,“Tsarist Anti-Semitism and Russian-American Relations,” Slavic Review, XLII(Fall,1983),408—424。

[21] 对凯南作用的全面讨论参见Taylor Stults,“Imperial Russia Through American Eyes,1894—1904”(Ph.D.Dissertation,University of Missouri,1970);以及Frederick F.Travis,“George Kennan and Russia,1865—1905”(Ph.D.Dissertation,Emory University,1974)。也可见一个俄国人的自传E.I.Melamed,Dzhordzh Kennan protiv tsarizma(Moscow: 1981)。

[22] 关于这一系列事件的讨论参见Gaddis,Russia,the Soviet Union,and the United States,pp.41—54。

[23] Norman Saul,“Amerian Perceptions of a Changing Russia,1890—1914”,这是为第五届美苏历史学家座谈会准备的论文,基辅,1984年6月。

[24] Taylor Stults,“Roosevelt,Russian Persecution of Jews,and American Public Opinion,” Jewish Social Studies,XXIII(January,1971),13—22; Philip Ernest Schoenberg,“The American Reaction to the Kishinev Pogrom of 1903,” American Jewish Historical Quarterly,LXIII(March,1974),262—283.

[25] Naomi K.Cohen,“The Abrogation of the Russo-American Treaty of 1832,” Jewish Social Studies,XXV(January,1963),3—41; Clifford L.Egan,“Pressure Groups,the Department of State and the Abrogation of the Russian-American Treaty of 1832,” Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society,CXV(August,1971),328—334.

[26] 转引自Zabriskie,American-Russian Rivalry,pp.120—121。也可参见Gaddis,Russia,the Soviet Union,and the United States,p.41。

[27] Sivachev and Yakovlev,Russia and the United States,pp.17—18.

[28] 关于威尔逊进行干涉的复杂动机的讨论参见John A.White,The Siberian Intervention(Princeton: 1950); Betty M.Unterberger,America's Siberia Expedition,1918—1920(Durham: 1956); George F.Kennan,Soviet-American Relations,1917—1920: The Decision to Intervene(Princeton: 1958); and Robert J.Maddox,The Unknown War with Russia: Wilson's Siberian Intervention(San Rafael,California: 1977)。

[29] 倾向于强调威尔逊反对布尔什维克主义的著作包括Arno J.Mayer,The Politics and Diplomacy of Peacemaking: Containment and Counterrevolution at Versailles,1918—1919(New York: 1967); N.Gordon Levin,Woodrow Wilson and World Politics(New York: 1968);苏联方面的著作是L.A.Gvishiani,Sovetskaia Rossiia i SShA,1917—1920g.(Moscow: 1970)。

[30] 例如可参见Sivachev and Yakovlev,Russia and the United States,pp.34—36。

[31] 我从以下著述中发现了这一论调V.L.Mal'kov,“From Intervention to Recognition: On the History of the Political Stuggle in the United States on the Question of Normalizing Soviet-American Relations,”这是为1984年6月在基辅举办的第五届苏联和美国历史学家座谈会所准备的论文,特别是该文第2—15页。以及Sivachev and Yakovlev,Russia and the United States,pp.62—67,77—84。关于当时苏联官员的态度参见Gaddis,Russia,the Soviet Union,and the United States,pp.87—93。

[32] 关于这一点参见John Milton Cooper,Jr.,The Warrior and the Priest: Woodrow Wilson and Theodore Roosevelt(Cambridge,Massachusetts: 1983),p.268。

[33] R.Sh.Ganelin,Rossiia i SShA,1914—1917(Leningrad: 1969).

[34] Gaddis,Russia,the Soviet Union,and the United States,pp.50—53.也可参见Sivachev and Yakovlev,Russia and the United States,pp.25—27,该书将美国对俄国经济影响的日益增长归结为沙皇体制的削弱,“它不再有力量防御自身免遭美国资本的渗透”。

[35] Chicherin report to the Central Executive Committee,January 27,1922,in Jane Degras,ed.,Soviet Documents on Foreign Policy,1917—1941(London: 1951—1953),I,291—292.

[36] 参见Lenin's speech in Moscow,November 27,1920,ibid.,pp.223—224;及Anthony Sutton,Western Technology and Soviet Economic Development: 1917 to 1930(Stanford: 1968),pp.346—348。

[37] Joan Hoff Wilson,Ideology and Economics: United States Relations with the Soviet Union,1918—1933(Columbia,Missouri: 1974),p.48.

[38] 转引自Floyd J.Fithian,“Soviet-American Economic Relations,1918—1933: American Business in Russia during the Period of Non-recognition”(Ph.D. dissertation,University of Nebraska,1964),p.196。

[39] 通常的解释参见Robert Paul Browder,The Origins of Soviet-American Diplomacy(Princeton: 1953); Donald G.Bishop,The Roosevelt-Litvinov Agreements: The American View(Syracuse: 1965); and Edward M.Bennett,Recognition of Russia: An American Foreign Policy Dilemma(Waltham,Massachusetts: 1970)。

[40] 美国对苏联出口占美国总出口比例如下:1929: 1.54%; 1930: 2.89%; 1931: 4.24%; 1932: 0.78%; 1933: 0.53%; 1934: 0.70%; 1935: 1.08%; 1936: 1.36%; 1937: 1.28%; 1938: 2.07%; 1939: 1.81%; 1940: 2.16%。资料来源:U.S.Department of Commerce,Statistical Abstract of the United States: 1933,1937,1941(Washington: 1933,1938,1942)。

[41] Wilson,Ideology and Economics,pp.120—130.

[42] Litvinov to the Soviet Foreign Ministry,November 8, 17, 1933,Dokumenty vneshneipolitiki SSSR(Moscow: 1957— ),XVI,609,658—659.

[43] 参见Robert Dallek,Franklin D.Roosevelt and American Foreign Policy,1932—1945(New York: 1979),p.321。

[44] Ibid.,p.68; Wayne S.Cole,Roosevelt and the Isolationists,1932—1945(Lincoln,Nebraska: 1983),p.243.

[45] 参见Thomas R.Maddux,Years of Estrangement: American Relations with the Soviet Union,1933—1941(Tallahassee: 1980),pp.44—68; and Hugh DeSantis,The Diplomacy of Silence: The American Foreign Service,the Soviet Union,and the Cold War,1933—1945(Chicago: 1980),pp.11—44。

[46] Maddux,Years of Estrangement,pp.69—80.

[47] Thomas R.Maddux,“United States-Soviet Naval Relations in the 1930's: The Soviet Union's Efforts to Purchase Naval Vessels,” Naval War College Review,XXIX(Fall,1976),28—37.

[48] Gaddis,Russia,the Soviet Union and the United States,pp.138—145.

[49] 关于这一点参见Seweryn Bialer,The Soviet Paradox: External Expansion,Internal Decline(New York: 1986),p.260。