Section II
Text A: Leaders and Leadership

Part 1 Power of Words

Core Words

1 incite [ɪn'saɪt] vt. (incited/incited/inciting)

to give an incentive for action; to provoke or stir up; to urge on; to cause to act

synonym　stir; motivate; actuate; propel; prompt; instigate; prod

antonym　restrain; depress; suppress

word family　incitation; incitement

related phrase　incite sb. to sth.; incite sb. to do sth.; incite chaos; incite anger

Example 1 He incited his fellow citizens to take their revenge.

Example 2 A private bid could incite hostile buyers to action.

2 subjugate ['sʌbdʒuɡeɪt] vt. (subjugated/subjugated/subjugating)

to put down by force or intimidation; to make sb./sth. subservient; to force to submit or subdue

synonym　persecute; submit; master; conquer

word family　subjugation

related phrase　subjugate sb. to sb./sth.; subjugate fire; subjugated people/nation/country

Example 1 Their costly and futile attempt to subjugate the Afghans lasted just 10 years.

Example 2 After having been subjugated to ambition, your maternal instincts are at last starting to assert themselves.

3 submissive [səb'mɪsɪv] adj.

obeying someone without arguing

synonym　followed; compliant; obedient

antonym　insubordinate; incompliant; indocile; unconformable

word family　submit; submission; submissiveness

related phrase　the submissive behaviour

Example 1 Most doctors want their patients to be submissive.

Example 2 The boss didn't like them not because they are competent and capable but because they are submissive or docile.

4 oust [aʊst] vt. (ousted/ousted/ousting)

to remove and replace; to remove from a position or office

synonym　shear; expel; throw off

word family　ouster

related phrase　oust of; oust from; oust sb. from sth.; oust from one's post; oust from power

Example 1 The leaders have been ousted from power by nationalists.

Example 2 The chairman was ousted after he misappropriated funds.

5 contrive [kən'traɪv] vt./vi. (contrived/contrived/contriving)

to make or work out a plan for; to come up with (an idea, plan, explanation, theory, or principle) after a mental effort; to succeed in making something happen, often by tricking someone

synonym　design; devise; excogitate; formulate; forge; form

word family　contrived; contrivance; contriver

related phrase　contrive to do sth.

Example 1 You contrive to finish the report as soon as possible.

Example 2 The oil companies were accused of contriving a shortage of petrol to justify price increases.

6 hanker ['hæŋkə] vi. (hankered/hankered/hankering)

to want something very much; to desire strongly or persistently

synonym　long; yearn

antonym　disgust; detest; dislike

word family　hankering

related phrase　hanker after/for sth.; hanker to do sth.

Example 1 I hanker after a corner because it serves to bring calmness to my mind.

Example 2 So people who hanker to express their own views find that their voices are muffled.

7 conquest ['kɒŋkwest] n.

the act of getting control of a country by fighting; something that is won in a war

synonym　prize; defeat; capture

antonym　failure; loss

word family　conquer

related phrase　make a conquest of...; the conquest of space; Empire Conquest

Example 1 He had led the conquest of southern Poland in 1939.

Example 2 The pianist made a conquest of every audience for which she played.

8 amass [ə'mæs] vt./vi. (amassed/amassed/amassing)

to collect or gather; to collect a large amount of something

synonym　accumulate; cumulate; gather; collect; pile up; store up

antonym　consume; deplete; scatter; disperse

word family　mass

related phrase　amass a (one's) fortune; amass money

Example 1 For 25 years, Darwin amassed evidence to support his theories.

Example 2 The students amassed for the parade.

9 subjugation [ˌsʌbdʒu'ɡeɪʃn] n.

forced submission to control by others; the act of conquering by cruelty

synonym　conquest; occupation; restraint; oppression

antonym　dominance; struggle; liberty

word family　subjugate

related phrase　the national subjugation; the armed subjugation; the temporary subjugation

Example 1 Despite a heavy propaganda campaign to suggest otherwise, the subjugation of the Taliban has been a failure.

Example 2 We know that, like South Africa, the United States had to overcome centuries of racial subjugation.

10 cataclysmic [ˌkætə'klɪzmɪk] adj.

changing a situation or society very greatly, especially in an unpleasant way; being severely destructive

synonym　catastrophic; devastating

antonym　slight; tiny

word family　cataclysmal; cataclysm

related phrase　cataclysmic events; a cataclysmic nuclear war

Example 1 Few had expected that change to be as cataclysmic as it turned out to be.

Example 2 Some of the world's cataclysmic disasters are associated with climate change, such as floods and massive landslides.

11 belligerent [bə'lɪdʒərənt] n.

someone who fights (or is fighting)

synonym　combatant; battler; fighter

word family　belligerence; belligerency

related phrase　belligerent force; a belligerent attitude

Example 1 The belligerents were due, once again, to try to settle their differences.

Example 2 Each belligerent calls his own battle line a bastion of iron.

12 carnage ['kɑːnɪdʒ] n.

the violent killing of large numbers of people, especially in a war

synonym　holocaust; bloodbath; slaughter

related phrase　primal carnage

Example 1 We seldom discuss the carnage because we don't dare puncture the illusion of safety.

Example 2 History reduces the carnage to impersonal numbers.

13 repudiate [rɪ'pjuːdɪeɪt] vt. (repudiated/repudiated/repudiating)

to strongly disagree with someone or something, and do not want to be connected with someone or something in any way; to refuse to acknowledge, ratify, or recognize as valid

synonym　renounce; refuse; deny

antonym　accept; admit

word family　repudiation

related phrase　repudiate a contract; repudiate a debt; repudiate with stern words

Example 1 Leaders urged people to turn out in large numbers to repudiate the violence.

Example 2 He repudiated all offers of friendship.

14 debilitating [dɪ'bɪlɪteɪtɪŋ] adj.

impairing the strength and vitality; making one's body or mind become gradually weaker

synonym　weak; sick; devitalizing

antonym　strengthening; boosting; enhancing

word family　debilitate; debilitated; debilitation; debility

related phrase　a debilitating disease

Example 1 The debilitating disease made him too weak to work.

Example 2 Historically, social order has been secured by violence, fear or debilitating poverty.

15 precursor [prɪ'kɜːsə] n.

a similar thing that happened or existed before it; something that led to the existence or development of that thing

synonym　forerunner; vaunt-courier antonym successor

word family　precursory; precursive

related phrase　precursor substance; precursor compound

Example 1 He said that the deal should not be seen as a precursor to a merger.

Example 2 Error is often the precursor of what is correct.

16 annul [ə'nʌl] vt. (annulled/annulled/annulling)

to declare invalid, so that legally one is considered never to have existed

synonym　abolish

antonym　establish

word family　annulment

related phrase　annul a marriage; annul a contract

Example 1 The effect of the statute was to annul this covenant.

Example 2 Opposition party leaders are now pressing for the entire election to be annulled.

17 prostrate ['prɒstreɪt] vt. (prostrated/prostrated/prostrating)

to lie down flat on the ground, on one's front, usually to show respect for God or a person in authority; to throw down or strike down, so not to be able to do anything

synonym　strike down; bow down

word family　prostrated; prostration

related phrase　prostrate oneself; prostrate with; prostrate (oneself) with frustration

Example 1 They prostrated themselves before the king.

Example 2 The trees were prostrated by the gales yesterday.

18 assassin [ə'sæsɪn] n.

a person who assassinates or kills someone

synonym　stabber; triggerman

word family　assassinate; assassinator; assassination

related phrase　the would-be assassin

Example 1 He saw the shooting and memorized the licence plate of the assassin's car.

Example 2 He'll never hire out as assassin with you.

19 embossment [ɪm'bɒsmənt] n.

an impression produced by pressure or printing; sculpture consisting of shapes carved on a surface so as to stand out from the surrounding background

synonym　rilievo; relievo

word family　emboss

related phrase　the embossment effect; the decorative embossment

Example 1 The embossment is one of the treasures of architecture arts.

Example 2 The souvenir medal is made of pure silver, adopting the embossment color printing technology.

20 stupendous [stjuː'pendəs] adj.

being surprisingly impressive or large

synonym　colossal; prodigious; tremendous

antonym　tiny; insignificant

word family　stupendously

related phrase　stupendous changes; stupendous strength; a stupendous man; stupendous achievements

Example 1 This stupendous novel keeps you gripped to the end.

Example 2 Kotto gives a stupendous performance.

21 barbarian [bɑː'beərɪən] adj.

being wild, cruel and uncivilized

synonym　predatory; barbaric; savage; uncivilized; uncivilised; wild

antonym　civilized

word family　barbaric; barbarous; barbarize; barbarization

related phrase　barbarian invaders

Example 1 We need to fight this barbarian attitude to science.

Example 2 We oppose and condemn the barbarian aggression by Israel on Palestine, and demand Israel fully withdraw from the Palestinian area.

22 pinnacle ['pɪnəkəl] n.

a pointed piece of stone or rock that is high above the ground; a particular area of life, the highest point

synonym　climax; peak; summit

antonym　trough

word family　pinnacled

related phrase　at the pinnacle of sth.; the pinnacle of academic achievement

Example 1 A walker fell 80 feet from a rocky pinnacle.

Example 2 She was still at the pinnacle of her career.

23 adhere to (formal English)

to keep in doing something

synonym　stick to; insist on; cling to

related phrase　adhere to sth.; adhere to principles; adhere to a belief

Example 1 We adhere to the principle that everyone should be treated fairly.

Example 2 She adhered to what she had said at the meeting.

24 ward off

to prevent the occurrence of something; to prevent from affecting someone, or harming someone

synonym　head off; stave off

related phrase　ward sth. off; ward off danger; ward off an assault; ward off disease

Example 1 She may have put up a fight to try to ward off her assailant.

Example 2 Warm clothing and good food helps to ward off a cold.

25 be afflicted with

to suffer from

synonym　suffer from

related phrase　be afflicted with illness; be afflicted with a conscience; be afflicted with a sense of inferiority

Example 1 Only other sufferers know what it is like to be afflicted with this disease.

Example 2 We will always be afflicted with the vices of a political constitution.

26 be fraught with

to be full of; to be filled with

synonym　be full of; be filled with; be stuffed with; be loaded with

related phrase 　be fraught with danger; be fraught with grim possibilities; an event fraught with significance

Example 1 The coming months will be fraught with fateful decisions.

Example 2 Making the ceasefire stick is likely to be fraught with difficulties.

Words for Self-study

Please find and memorize the meanings and usages of the following words with the help of dictionaries, online resources and other references.

Albania　　Algeria　　autocrat　　backyard　　Balkan

battlefield　　clove　　condescend　　condole　　congeal

connive　　counterfeit　　decapitate　　decontaminate　　defiant

deft　　demarcate　　diffident　　disfigure　　dynasty

espionage　　ethnography　　evade　　fatherland　　fatuous

feudal　　foist　　genocide　　hellish　　heroine

intrusive　　itinerary　　Judaism　　Kaleidoscope　　languish

Laos　　multilateral　　mutiny　　Nicaragua　　ottoman

outlaw　　outstrip　　pact　　papal　　plunder

postscript　　proactive　　prostration　　quasi　　sabbath

Slovenia　　stave　　subversive　　Tanzania　　tentacle

tribune　　truce　　Uganda　　vegetation　　Venezuela

vitality　　warder　　warlord

Part 2 Text
Leaders and Leadership

What does it mean to be a leader? Does it require that a person hold political office and rule masses? Does it include only those who made a positive impact on society or also those who wreaked devastation and destruction? Do humanitarians or activists who never held office but who had the ability to incite thousands and millions with a vision of a different, better world merit inclusion?

Many very different types of leaders are profiled in this book, which is arranged chronologically by date of birth. It ends with Osama bin Laden¹ and Barack Obama². One is a mastermind of terrorist acts that have killed thousands and another a politician who overcame the weight of hundreds of years of slavery and discrimination against blacks to become the first African American elected president of the most powerful country in the world. They are opposites in almost every imaginable way. Bin Laden leads a global jihad³ against Western values, and Obama, the symbolic leader of the West, was the recipient of the 2009 Nobel Peace Prize. They are linked, however, in their ability to inspire loyal followers—in bin Laden's case to commit destruction and in Obama's to believe that ordinary citizens, acting together, can change a sometimes seemingly bleak world for the better—and in their lasting impact on the world in which they and future generations will live.

The world today has some 6.7 billion people, most of whom adhere to one religion or another. In the 13th century BC, Moses delivered his people from Egyptian slavery and received the Ten Commandments⁴, establishing Judaism⁵ as the world's first great monotheistic religion. Although Jews make up but a small fraction of the world's population today, monotheism⁶ flourishes, with Christians and Muslims together accounting for more than half the world's population.

Jesus'⁷ Christian followers were once subjugated by the Romans until Constantine the Great⁸ became the first Roman emperor to convert to Christianity; now, more than two billion people call themselves Christians. In the 7th century Muhammad⁹ founded Islam, and he is considered by Muslims to be the last of the Great Prophets; his name is now invoked several billion times a day by nearly 1.5 billion Muslims around the world. Others, such as Confucius¹⁰ in 6th–5th-century-BC China and Buddha¹¹ in the area around Nepal and India about the same time, have inspired hundreds of millions of people, and their teachings remain central to the daily lives of vast numbers today. And, though these figures still have relevance thousands of years after their deaths, the world continues to produce religious leaders—Martin Luther and his Reformation in Europe, Ruhollah Khomeini¹² and his Islamic Revolution in Iran, John Paul II and his more than 25-year leadership as head of the Roman Catholic Church.

While some have founded religions, others have founded countries. George Washington is almost universally revered in the United States as the "Father of His Country", securing independence on the battlefield and then turning down an offer to become king. The American Revolution began the process of independence in the so-called New World, which had been submissive to colonial domination by European powers. Less than 40 years after the American Revolution had been won, another American revolution of sorts, led by Simón Bolívar¹³ in Latin America, helped oust Spanish rule there. Bolívar's name is still a symbol to revolutionary leaders in Latin America. Indeed, Hugo Chávez¹⁴ leads his own "Bolivarian Revolution" in Venezuela today.

In Europe, too, new countries were contrived in what are generally thought of as ancient lands—Giuseppe Garibaldi¹⁵ helped create a unified Kingdom of Italy in 1861, while Otto von Bismarck¹⁶ helped forge a German empire in 1871. Old empires fell away and were replaced with modern states in the 20th century. Vladimir Lenin¹⁷ established in Russia the world's first communist regime, one that, though it collapsed nearly 75 years later, continues to have a lasting influence on our world. Out of the ashes of the Ottoman Empire¹⁸, Kemal Atatürk¹⁹ helped found modern Turkey. Eamon de Valera won Irish independence from Great Britain. Ibn Sa'ūd created a country, Saudi Arabia, that bears his family's name. And, Mao Zedong²⁰ led a 30-year struggle in China, creating a communist state in 1949 that 60 years later continues to rule over the world's largest population. Sometimes individuals have led peaceful resistance movements that have freed their people—as Mohandas Gandhi²¹ did in India. After World War II, as peoples hankered to become free, David Ben-Gurion²² in Israel, Kwame Nkrumah²³ in Ghana, Julius Nyerere²⁴ in Tanzania, and Ho Chi Minh²⁵ in Vietnam fought for and achieved their country's independence in different ways. Nelson Mandela²⁶ in South Africa is yet another story of resistance—sometimes armed and sometimes peaceful. He was jailed from 1964 to 1990 by his apartheid government, which legally discriminated against the overwhelmingly black population in favour of minority whites, before being released, helping end apartheid, ushering in a peaceful transition to democracy, and becoming the first black president of the new, multiracial South Africa.

Some of the world's greatest leaders have earned their place here from victories—and defeats—on the battlefield. Alexander the Great²⁷ won a vast 4th-century-BC empire that eventually stretched from Europe to India. Attila²⁸ commanded the Huns, leading them in invasions against the Balkans, Greece, and Italy. His empire, however, died shortly after he did in 453 AD. Charlemagne²⁹ had himself crowned Holy Roman emperor in 800, following military conquests that expanded his kingdom outward from what is modern-day Germany. A millennium later, Napoleon³⁰ led French forces in Europe to stunning victories, but his defeats in Russia and, later, at Waterloo proved his downfall. Outside of Europe, Chinggis Khan³¹ was one of the greatest warriors the world has ever seen, leading his Mongols in amassing an empire that stretched from Mongolia to the Adriatic Sea in the 12th–13th century. At about the same time, Saladin, founder of the Ayyubid dynasty, fought in the Middle East against Christian Crusaders, capturing Jerusalem to end nearly nine decades of subjugation by Christians.

The 20th century brought advances in technology—making war even more cataclysmic than it was during Napoleon's time. It is estimated that some 35 to 60 million people died during World War II, and for this reason the leaders of the major belligerents usually top any list of influential leaders. Italy's II Duce, Benito Mussolini³², the world's first fascist dictator, joined an alliance in Europe with Germany's Adolf Hitler³³ under whose dictatorial rule most of Europe fell and some six million Jews died in the carnage. Together, Hitler and Mussolini formed the Axis with Japan in the Pacific. Hirohito, emperor of Japan, though playing a limited political role, was the symbolic leader of his country. His national radio address in 1945, the first time many Japanese had heard his voice, announced the country's surrender, and the next year he repudiated his quasi-divine status, helping to engineer Japanese democracy after the war. Franklin D. Roosevelt³⁴, though afflicted with debilitating polio, managed to win re-election to four terms as president of the United States and led the Allies. He was joined by Winston Churchill³⁵, whose steely nerves helped calm Britain during relentless bombing by the German Luftwaffe, while Charles de Gaulle led the Free French against German occupation. A fourth ally was Joseph Stalin³⁶, initially signing a pact with Hitler, he joined the Allies following Hitler's invasion of the Soviet Union.

From the ashes of World War II came dreams to build a Europe that would be free from the traditional English-French-German rivalry that had plunged the continent into two world wars. Jean Monnet and Robert Schuman may never have led a government, but they helped found the European Coal and Steel Community, the precursor of today's European Union. The EU now encompasses 27 countries—from Portugal in the west, Malta in the south, Finland in the north, and Romania in the east—helping to integrate the continent both politically and economically and ward off war.

Upholding the European ideal was but one way in which statesmen and activists have influenced the arc of history without ever possessing formal power. Frederick Douglass, one of the greatest human rights leaders of the 19th century, helped lead the American abolition movement. Though slavery had been annulled in the United States in 1865, African Americans still suffered from discrimination, so in the next century Martin Luther King Jr.³⁷, used nonviolent protest and civil disobedience, modeled on Gandhi's movement in India, to achieve political equality before he was prostrated by an assassin's bullet in 1968. Eleanor Roosevelt, wife of Franklin, was a tireless campaigner for human rights, playing a major role in drafting and gaining adoption of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights—considered humanity's Magna Carta (Great Charter) to many.

Eleanor Roosevelt was but one woman whose embossment has been made on a society traditionally dominated by men. One of her predecessors as first lady, Abigail Adams, wrote in 1776 in a letter to her husband, John Adams, the great revolutionary and the second president of the United States, "I desire you would remember the ladies and be more generous and favorable to them than your ancestors." (Neither Adams nor her husband made the list of 100.) Too often, however, women have not been remembered in history. Still, their contributions have been stupendous. Cleopatra, who ruled as queen of Egypt for decades, eventually committed suicide, and history was rewritten to portray her as barbarian and immoral rather than as the woman she was: strong and smart, a philosopher and a scientist. Women were also discriminated against in the hereditary monarchies of Europe, which favoured males in deciding who would rule. Though her father, Henry VIII, had divorced or had killed several wives to find one who would produce a male heir, Elizabeth I eventually became queen of England, ruling for 45 years and giving her name to an age. Catherine II the Great of Russia was empress for more than three decades, and during her time she brought Russia into full participation in the political and cultural life of Europe. While Elizabeth and Catherine ruled from palaces, Joan of Arc³⁸ earned her mark on the battlefield. She died at the age of 19, burned at the stake, but before then she led the French to win improbable battles, mostly due to the confidence that her men had in her, despite her youth, gender, and lack of military know-how. Margaret Thatcher³⁹, the "Iron Lady", became Britain's first woman prime minister in 1979 and helped win the Cold War. Other strong women have reached the pinnacle of power only to be murdered. Indira Gandhi⁴⁰ of India served four terms as prime minister of the world's largest democracy but then was assassinated by extremists, while Benazir Bhutto⁴¹, in neighbouring Pakistan, was the first woman in modern history elected to lead a predominantly Muslim country, and while campaigning in 2007 for what would most likely have been another term as prime minister was killed by an assassin. Today, Aung San Suu Kyi⁴², winner of the 1991 Nobel Peace Prize, continues the fight for freedom, the face of hope in an authoritarian Myanmar (Burma) whose leadership has mostly kept her under house arrest.

Selecting the most influential anything is inherently fraught with difficulties, and choosing those individuals who have left a lasting impression on the world—both during their times and long after they perished—was nearly impossible. The stories that follow represent both the best—and the worst—of humanity and provide an itinerary across time and across the globe—a trek that will provide keen insight into the art of leadership and the countless followers who were drawn into a cause, an upheaval, or a new dawn.

(Adapted from The 100 Most Influential World Leaders of All Time)

Notes

1 Osama bin Laden

Osama bin Laden (March 10, 1957–May 2, 2011) was the founder of al-Qaeda, the organization that claimed responsibility for the September 11 attacks on the United States, along with numerous other mass-casualty attacks worldwide. He was a Saudi Arabian, a member of the wealthy bin Laden family, and an ethnic Yemeni Kindite.

2 Barack Obama

Barack Obama (August 4, 1961–) is an American politician who served as the 44th President of the United States from 2009 to 2017. He is the first African American to have served as president, as well as the first born outside the contiguous United States. He previously served in the U. S. Senate representing Illinois from 2005 to 2008, and in the Illinois State Senate from 1997 to 2004. Obama was born in Honolulu, Hawaii, two years after the territory was admitted to the Union as the 50th state. He grew up mostly in Hawaii, but also spent one year of his childhood in Washington State and four years in Indonesia. After graduating from Columbia University in 1983, he worked as a community organizer in Chicago. In 1988 Obama enrolled in Harvard Law School, where he was the first black president of the Harvard Law Review. After graduation, he became a civil rights attorney and professor, teaching constitutional law at the University of Chicago Law School from 1992 to 2004. Obama represented the 13th District for three terms in the Illinois Senate from 1997 to 2004, when he ran for the U. S. Senate. Obama received national attention in 2004, with his unexpected March primary win, his well-received July Democratic National Convention keynote address, and his landslide November election to the Senate. In 2008, Obama was nominated for president, a year after his campaign began, and after a close primary campaign against Hillary Clinton. He was elected over Republican John McCain, and was inaugurated on January 20, 2009. Nine months later, Obama was named the 2009 Nobel Peace Prize laureate.

3 jihad

Jihad is an Arabic word which literally means striving or struggling, especially with a praiseworthy aim. It can have many shades of meaning in an Islamic context, such as struggle against one's evil inclinations, or efforts toward the moral betterment of society. In classical Islamic law, the term refers to armed struggle against unbelievers, while modernist Islamic scholars generally equate military jihad with defensive warfare. In Sufi and pious circles, spiritual and moral jihad has been traditionally emphasized under the name of greater jihad. The term has gained additional attention in recent decades through its use by terrorist groups.

4 the Ten Commandments

The Ten Commandments, also known as the Decalogue, are a set of biblical principles relating to ethics and worship, which play a fundamental role in Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. The commandments include instructions to worship only God, to honour one's parents, and to keep the sabbath, as well as prohibitions against idolatry, blasphemy, murder, adultery, theft, dishonesty, and coveting. Different religious groups follow different traditions for interpreting and numbering them.

5 Judaism

Judaism encompasses the religion, philosophy, culture and way of life of the Jewish people. Judaism is an ancient monotheistic religion, with the Torah as its foundational text (part of the larger text known as the Tanakh or Hebrew Bible), and supplemental oral tradition represented by later texts such as the Midrash and the Talmud. Judaism is considered by religious Jews to be the expression of the covenantal relationship that God established with the Children of Israel. With between 14.5 and 17.4 million adherents worldwide, Judaism is the tenth-largest religion in the world.

6 monotheism

Monotheism has been defined as the belief in the existence of only one god that created the world, is all-powerful and interferes in the world. Another more broad definition of monotheism is the belief in one god. A distinction may be made between exclusive monotheism, and both inclusive monotheism and pluriform monotheism which, while recognising various distinct gods, postulate some underlying unity.

7 Jesus

Jesus (c. 4 BC–c. 30/33 AD), also referred to as Jesus of Nazareth or Jesus Christ, was a Jewish preacher and religious leader who became the central figure of Christianity. Christians believe him to be the Son of God and the awaited Messiah (Christ) prophesied in the Old Testament.

8 Constantine the Great

Constantine the Great (February 27, 272 AD–May 22, 337 AD), also known as Constantine I or Saint Constantine, was a Roman Emperor from 306 to 337 AD. Constantine was the son of Flavius Valerius Constantius, a Roman Army officer, and his consort Helena. His father became Caesar, the deputy emperor in the west, in 293 AD. Constantine was sent east, where he rose through the ranks to become a military tribune under the emperors Diocletian and Galerius. In 305, Constantius was raised to the rank of Augustus, senior western emperor, and Constantine was recalled west to campaign under his father in Britannia (Britain). Acclaimed as emperor by the army at Eboracum (modern-day York) after his father's death in 306 AD, Constantine emerged victorious in a series of civil wars against the emperors Maxentius and Licinius to become the sole ruler of both west and east by 324 AD.

9 Muhammad

Muhammad (c. 570 AD–June 8, 632 AD) is the prophet of Islam. From a secular historical perspective, he was a religious, political, and social reformer who founded Islam. From an Islamic perspective, he was God's Messenger sent to confirm the essential teachings of monotheism preached previously by Adam, Abraham, Moses, Jesus, and other prophets. He is viewed as the final prophet of God in all branches of Islam, except some modern denominations. Muhammad united Arabia into a single Muslim polity and ensured that his teachings, practices and the Quran formed the basis of Islamic religious belief.

10 Confucius

Confucius (September 28, 551 BC–April 11, 479 BC) was a Chinese teacher, editor, politician, and philosopher of the Spring and Autumn period of Chinese history. The philosophy of Confucius emphasized personal and governmental morality, correctness of social relationships, justice and sincerity. His followers competed successfully with many other schools during the Hundred Schools of Thought era only to be suppressed in favor of the Legalists during the Qin Dynasty. Following the victory of Han over Chu after the collapse of Qin, Confucius'thoughts received official sanction and were further developed into a system known in the West as Confucianism.

11 Buddha

Buddha (c. 563 BC/480 BC–c. 483 BC/400 BC), also known as Siddhārtha Gautama, Shakyamuni Buddha, or simply the Buddha, was an ascetic and sage, on whose teachings Buddhism was founded. He is believed to have lived and taught mostly in the eastern part of ancient India sometime between the sixth and fourth centuries BC.

12 Ruhollah Khomeini

Ruhollah Khomeini (September 24, 1902–June 3, 1989) was an Iranian Shia Islam religious leader, philosopher, revolutionary and politician. He was the founder of the Islamic Republic of Iran and the leader of the 1979 Iranian Revolution that saw the overthrow of the Pahlavi monarchy and Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, the Shah of Iran. Following the revolution, Khomeini became the country's Supreme Leader, a position created in the constitution of the Islamic Republic as the highest-ranking political and religious authority of the nation, which he held until his death. He was succeeded by Ali Khamenei. John Paul II second Papal conclave of 1978.

13 Simón Bolívar

Simón Bolívar (July 24, 1783–December 17, 1830) was a Venezuelan military and political leader who played a leading role in the establishment of Venezuela, Bolivia, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru and Panama as sovereign states, independent of Spanish rule.

14 Hugo Chávez

Hugo Chávez (July 28, 1954–March 5, 2013) was a Venezuelan politician who served as the 64th President of Venezuela from 1999 to 2013. He was also the leader of the Fifth Republic Movement from its foundation in 1997 until 2007, when it merged with several other parties to form the United Socialist Party of Venezuela (PSUV), which he led until 2012.

15 Giuseppe Garibaldi

Giuseppe Garibaldi (July 4, 1807–June 2, 1882) was an Italian general, politician and nationalist who played a large role in the history of Italy. He is considered, with Camillo Benso, Count of Cavour, Victor Emmanuel II of Italy and Giuseppe Mazzini, as one of Italy's "fathers of the fatherland".

16 Otto von Bismarck

Otto von Bismarck (April 1, 1815–July 30, 1898) was a conservative Prussian statesman whodominated German and European affairs from the 1860s until 1890. In the 1860s, he engineered a series of wars that unified the German states, significantly and deliberately excluding Austria, into a powerful German Empire under Prussian leadership. With that accomplished by 1871, he skillfully used balance of power diplomacy to maintain Germany's position in a Europe which, despite many disputes and war scares, remained at peace. For historian Eric Hobsb-awm, it was Bismarck who "remained undisputed world champion at the game of multilateral diplomatic chess for almost twenty years after 1871, [and] devoted himself exclusively, and successfully, to maintaining peace between the powers".

17 Vladimir Lenin

Vladimir Lenin (April 22, 1870–January 21, 1924) was a Russian communist revolutionary, politician, and political theorist. He served as head of government of the Russian Republic from 1917 to 1918, of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic from 1918 to 1924, and of the Soviet Union from 1922 to 1924. Under his administration, Russia and then the wider Soviet Union became a one-party socialist state governed by the Russian Communist Party. Ideologically a Marxist, he developed political theories known as Leninism.

18 the Ottoman Empire

The Ottoman Empire, also known as the Turkish Empire, Ottoman Turkey, was an empire and a great power, founded at the end of the thirteenth century in northwestern Anatolia in the vicinity of Bilecik and Söğüt by the Oghuz Turkish tribal leader Osman I. After 1354, the Ottomans crossed into Europe, and with the conquest of the Balkans, the Ottoman beylik was transformed into a transcontinental empire. The Ottomans ended the Byzantine Empire with the 1453 conquest of Constantinople by Mehmed the Conqueror.

19 Kemal Atatürk

Kemal Atatürk (May 19, 1881–November 10, 1938) was a Turkish army officer, revolutionary, and founder of the Republic of Turkey, serving as its first President from 1923 until his death in 1938. His surname, Atatürk (meaning "Father of the Turks"), was granted to him in 1934 and forbidden to any other person by the Turkish parliament.

20 Mao Zedong

Mao Zedong or Mao Tse-tung (December 26, 1893–September 9, 1976), also known as Chairman Mao, was a Chinese communist revolutionary and founding father of the People's Republic of China, which he governed as the Chairman of the Communist Party of China from its establishment in 1949, until his death in 1976. His Marxist–Leninist theories, military strategies, and political policies are collectively known as Maoism or Marxism-Leninism-Maoism.

21 Mohandas Gandhi

Mohandas Gandhi (October 2, 1869–January 30, 1948) was the preeminent leader of the Indian independence movement in British-ruled India. Employing nonviolent civil disobedience, Gandhi led India to independence and inspired movements for civil rights and freedom across the world. He is unofficially called the Father of the Nation.

22 David Ben-Gurion

David Ben-Gurion (October 16, 1886–December 1, 1973) was the primary founder of the State of Israel and the first Prime Minister of Israel. Ben-Gurion's passion for Zionism, which began early in life, led him to become a major Zionist leader and Executive Head of the World Zionist Organization in 1946. As head of the Jewish Agency from 1935 and later president of the Jewish Agency Executive, he was the de facto leader of the Jewish community in Palestine, and largely led its struggle for an independent Jewish state in Mandatory Palestine. On 14 May 1948, he formally proclaimed the establishment of the State of Israel, and was the first to sign the Israeli Declaration of Independence, which he had helped to write. Ben-Gurion led Israel during the 1948 Arab–Israeli War, and united the various Jewish militias into the Israel Defense Forces (IDF). Subsequently, he became known as "Israel's founding father".

23 Kwame Nkrumah

Kwame Nkrumah (September 18 or 21, 1909–April, 27, 1972) led Ghana to independence from Britain in 1957 and served as its first prime minister and president. Nkrumah first gained power as leader of the colonial Gold Coast, and held it until he was deposed in 1966.

24 Julius Nyerere

Julius Nyerere (April 13, 1922–October 14, 1999) was a Tanzanian statesman who served as the leader of Tanzania, and previously Tanganyika, from 1960 until his retirement in 1985. Nyerere was known by the Swahili honorific Mwalimu or "teacher", his profession prior to politics. He was also referred to as Baba wa Taifa (Father of the Nation). In 1954, he helped form the Tanganyika African National Union, which was instrumental in obtaining independence for Tanganyika.

25 Ho Chi Minh

Ho Chi Minh (May 19, 1890–September 2, 1969) was a Vietnamese Communist revolutionary leader who was the prime minister (1945–1955) and president (1945–1969) of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam (North Vietnam). He was a key figure in the foundation of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam in 1945, as well as the People's Army of Vietnam (PAVN) and the Việt Cộng (NLF or VC) during the Vietnam War.

26 Nelson Mandela

Nelson Mandela (July 18, 1918-December 5, 2013) was a South African anti-apartheid revolutionary, politician, and philanthropist, who served as President of South Africa from 1994 to 1999. He was the country's first black head of state and the first elected in a fully representative democratic election. His government focused on dismantling the legacy of apartheid by tackling institutionalised racism and fostering racial reconciliation. Ideologically an African nationalist and socialist, he served as President of the African National Congress (ANC) party from 1991 to 1997.

27 Alexander the Great

Alexander the Great (July 20/21, 356 BC–June 10/11, 323 BC) was a king of the Ancient Greek kingdom of Macedon and a member of the Argead dynasty. He was born in Pella in 356 BC and succeeded his father Philip II to the throne at the age of twenty. He spent most of his ruling years on an unprecedented military campaign through Asia and northeast Africa, and he had created one of the largest empires of the ancient world by the age of thirty, stretching from Greece to northwestern India. He was undefeated in battle and is widely considered one of history's most successful military commanders.

28 Attila

Attila (c. 406–453), frequently referred to as Attila the Hun, was the ruler of the Huns from 434 until his death in March 453. Attila was a leader of the Hunnic Empire, a tribal confederation consisting of Huns, Ostrogoths, and Alans among others, on the territory of Central and Eastern Europe.

29 Charlemagne

Charlemagne (April 2, 742/747/748–January 28, 814), numbered Charles I, was the King of the Franks from 768, King of the Lombards from 774 and Emperor of the Romans from 800. He united much of Europe during the early Middle Ages. He was the first recognised emperor in western Europe since the fall of the Western Roman Empire three centuries earlier. The expanded Frankish state which Charlemagne founded was called the Carolingian Empire.

30 Napoleon

Napoleon (August 15, 1769–May 5, 1821) was a French military and political leader who rose to prominence during the French Revolution and led several successful campaigns during the French Revolutionary Wars. As Napoleon I, he was Emperor of the French from 1804 until 1814 and again in 1815. Napoleon dominated European and global affairs for more than a decade while leading France against a series of coalitions in the Napoleonic Wars. He won most of these wars and the vast majority of his battles, building a large empire that ruled over continental Europe before its final collapse in 1815. One of the greatest commanders in history, his wars and campaigns are studied at military schools worldwide. Napoleon's political and cultural legacy has ensured his status as one of the most celebrated and controversial leaders in human history.

31 Chinggis Khan

Chinggis Khan (c. 1162–August 18, 1227), born Temüjin, was the founder and Great Khan (Emperor) of the Mongol Empire, which became the largest contiguous empire in history after his death. He came to power by uniting many of the nomadic tribes of Northeast Asia. After founding the Empire and being proclaimed "Genghis Khan", he started the Mongol invasions that conquered most of Eurasia. Campaigns initiated in his lifetime include those against the Qara Khitai, Caucasus, and Khwarazmian, Western Xia and Jin dynasties. These campaigns were often accompanied by wholesale genocide of the civilian populations—especially in the Khwarazmian and Western Xia controlled lands. By the end of his life, the Mongol Empire occupied a substantial portion of Central Asia and China.

32 Benito Mussolini

Benito Mussolini (July 29, 1883–April 28, 1945) was an Italian politician, journalist, and leader of the National Fascist Party, ruling the country as Prime Minister from 1922 to 1943. He ruled constitutionally until 1925, when he dropped all pretense of democracy and set up a legal dictatorship. Known as II Duce (The Leader), Mussolini was the founder of Italian Fascism.

33 Adolf Hitler

Adolf Hitler (April 20, 1889–April 30, 1945) was a German politician who was the leader of the Nazi Party), Chancellor of Germany from 1933 to 1945, and Führer ("Leader") of Nazi Germany from 1934 to 1945. As dictator of the German Reich, he initiated World War II in Europe with the invasion of Poland in September 1939 and was central to the Holocaust.

34 Franklin D. Roosevelt

Franklin D. Roosevelt (January 30, 1882–April 12, 1945), commonly known as FDR, was an American statesman and political leader who served as the 32nd President of the United States from 1933 until his death in 1945. A Democrat, he won a record four presidential elections and emerged as a central figure in world events during the mid-20th century. He directed the United States government during most of the Great Depression and World War II. As a dominant leader of his party, he built the New Deal Coalition, realigning American politics into the Fifth Party System and defining American liberalism throughout the middle third of the 20th century. He is often rated by scholars as one of the three greatest U. S. Presidents, along with George Washington and Abraham Lincoln.

35 Winston Churchill

Winston Churchill (November 30, 1874–January 24, 1965) was a British statesman who was the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom from 1940 to 1945 and again from 1951 to 1955. Churchill was also an officer in the British Army, non-academic historian, and writer (as Winston S. Churchill). He won the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1953 for his overall, lifetime body of work. In 1963, he was the first of only eight people to be made an honorary citizen of the United States.

36 Joseph Stalin

Joseph Stalin (December 18, 1878–March 5, 1953) was the leader of the Soviet Union from the mid-1920s until his death in 1953. Holding the post of the General Secretary of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, he was effectively the dictator of the state. Stalin was one of the seven members of the first Politburo, founded in 1917 in order to manage the Bolshevik Revolution, alongside Lenin, Zinoviev, Kamenev, Trotsky, Sokolnikov, and Bubnov. Among the Bolshevik revolutionaries who took part in the Russian Revolution of 1917, Stalin was appointed General Secretary of the party's Central Committee in 1922. He managed to consolidate power following the 1924 death of Vladimir Lenin by suppressing Lenin's criticisms (in the postscript of his testament) and expanding the functions of his role, all the while eliminating any opposition. He remained General Secretary until the post was abolished in 1952, concurrently serving as the Premier of the Soviet Union from 1941 until 1953.

37 Martin Luther King Jr.

Martin Luther King Jr. (January 15, 1929–April 4, 1968) was an American Baptist minister and activist who became the most visible spokesperson and leader in the civil rights movement from 1954 until his death in 1968. Born in Atlanta, King is best known for advancing civil rights through nonviolence and civil disobedience, tactics his Christian beliefs and the nonviolent activism of Mahatma Gandhi helped inspire. On October 14, 1964, King won the Nobel Peace Prize for combating racial inequality through nonviolent resistance. In 1968, King was planning a national occupation of Washington, D. C., to be called the Poor People's Campaign, when he was assassinated on April 4 in Memphis, Tennessee. His death was followed by riots in many U. S. cities.

38 Joan of Arc

Joan of Arc (January 6, c. 1412–May 30, 1431), nicknamed "The Maid of Orléans", is considered a heroine of France for her role during the Lancastrian phase of the Hundred Years' War and was canonized as a Roman Catholic saint. Joan of Arc was born to Jacques d'Arc and Isabelle Romée, a peasant family, at Domrémy in north-east France. Joan said she received visions of the Archangel Michael, Saint Margaret, and Saint Catherine of Alexandria instructing her to support Charles VII and recover France from English domination late in the Hundred Years'War. The uncrowned King Charles VII sent Joan to the siege of Orléans as part of a relief mission. She gained prominence after the siege was lifted only nine days later. Several additional swift victories led to Charles VII's coronation at Reims. This long-awaited event boosted French morale and paved the way for the final French victory.

39 Margaret Thatcher

Margaret Thatcher (October 13, 1925–April 8, 2013) was a British stateswoman who was the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom from 1979 to 1990 and the Leader of the Conservative Party from 1975 to 1990. She was the longest-serving British prime minister of the 20th century, and the first woman to have held the office. A Soviet journalist dubbed her the "Iron Lady", a nickname that became associated with her uncompromising politics and leadership style. As Prime Minister, she implemented policies that have come to be known as Thatcherism.

40 Indira Gandhi

Indira Gandhi (November 19, 1917–October 31, 1984) was an Indian politician and central figure of the Indian National Congress party, and to date the only female Prime Minister of India. Indira Gandhi was the daughter of India's first Prime Minister, Jawaharlal Nehru. She served as Prime Minister from 1966 to 1977 and then again from 1980 until her assassination in 1984, making her the second-longest-serving Prime Minister of India after her father.

41 Benazir Bhutto

Benazir Bhutto (June 21, 1953–December 27, 2007) was the 11th Prime Minister of Pakistan and the leader of the centre-left Pakistan Peoples Party. She was the first woman to head a Muslim majority nation. Born in Karachi, her father, Zulfikar, went on to serve as Pakistan's prime minister in the 1970s. Benazir was educated at Harvard and at Oxford, also serving as the first Asian woman to preside over the Oxford Union. After the 1977 military coup which overthrew her father's government, Benazir along with her family were repeatedly placed under house arrest. After her father was hanged in 1979, Benazir, along with her mother Nusrat, went on to lead the Movement for the Restoration of Democracy while still under house arrest. In 1984, Benazir, along with her family, left for London where she resided until 1988. After her return, Benazir successfully led the People's Party through the 1988 election.

42 Aung San Suu Kyi

Aung San Suu Kyi (June 19, 1945–) is a Burmese politician, diplomat, and author who is the first and incumbent State Counsellor and leader of the National League for Democracy. She is also the first woman to serve as Minister for Foreign Affairs of Myanmar, Minister for the President's Office, Minister of Electric Power and Energy, and Minister for Education in President Htin Kyaw's Cabinet, and from 2012 to 2016 was a Pyithu Hluttaw MP for Kawhmu Township.

Part 3 Exercises

I. Reading Practice

Directions:

1. Read aloud and listen to the audio of the text for full understanding.

2. Practice subvocal reading at fast speed (300 words per minute).

3. Try to suppress subvocal reading to achieve faster reading speed.

II. Vocabulary Journey

Directions: Please find out from Text A the synonyms or antonyms of the following words. You may use the words more than once.

Synonyms

1. bravo　　　2. devastating

3. yearn　　　4. stave off

5. abet　　　6. massacre

7. enormous　　　8. turbulence

9. abolish　　　10. expatriate

11. subdue　　　12. forerunner

Antonyms

1. dissipate　　　2. peacekeeping

3. nadir　　　4. tyrannical

5. impede　　　6. pure land

7. civilized　　　8. capitulate

III. Multiple Choice

Directions: There are 10 incomplete sentences in this part. Please make a choice that best completes each sentence.

1. Geithner also defended President Barack Obama's decision last week to ________ the chairman of languishing U. S. automaker General Motors.

A) outstrip

B) oust

C) attest

D) foist

2. His deft and skillful handling of the counterfeit issue raised him in a fortnight from the depth to the ________.

A) pinnacle

B) tentacle

C) manacle

D) spectacle

3. Whenever I got any loop-hole to evade the vigilance of my warders and could ________ to reach the backyard I felt I had a holiday indeed.

A) perceive

B) connive

C) deceive

D) contrive

4. Adolf Hitler, the infamous fascist head, had failed to quell or ________ Britain.

A) condole

B) congeal

C) conquer

D) conjure

5. This love of home, the desire to retrieve the country from the grip of the autocrat and his retainers, was what animated a hitherto ________ population.

A) intrusive

B) resistive

C) submissive

D) subversive

6. If both sides accede to sign a truce ________, the war might be over.

A) pact

B) tact

C) sect

D) ject

7. The imperialists use this ideology and culture as a lever for easily realizing their domination and ________, aggression and plunder of other countries.

A) starvation

B) conservation

C) vegetation

D) subjugation

8. Warlords rely on feudal exploitation to ________ wealth.

A) mess

B) fess

C) amass

D) assess

9. Both officers were brought before the courts earlier this month, and charged with ________ to mutiny.

A) incitement

B) attachment

C) armament

D) vestment

10. These diseases blind, maim, disfigure, ________, and disable individuals.

A) demarcate

B) debilitate

C) decontaminate

D) decapitate

IV. Cultural Kaleidoscope

Directions: Please choose the most appropriate answer to each statement.

1. The Star of David, known in Hebrew as the Shield of David, is the symbol of ________.

A) Islamism

B) Moslemism

C) Judaism

D) Hinduism

2. ________ has been well documented for its elusive success in global beauty pageantry, headed by the renowned beauty queen maker Osmel Sousa.

A) Slovenia

B) Venezuela

C) Albania

D) Nicaragua

3. Clove is the national flower of ________, east Africa.

A) Laos

B) Algeria

C) Uganda

D) Tanzania

4. The black leader Mandela was elected president of South Africa in May 1994, which marked the end of ________.

A) tyranny

B) espionage

C) apartheid

D) ethnography

5. In the 19th century, Balkan people used guerrilla fighting against the ________.

A) Ottoman Empire

B) Roman Empire

C) Macedonian Empire

D) Spanish Empire

V. Rhetoric Appreciation

Directions: A rhetorical device or a figure of speech is a technique that an author or speaker uses to convey to the reader or listener a meaning with the goal of persuading him or her towards considering a topic from a different perspective, using language designed to encourage or evoke an emotional response in the audience. The widely-used rhetorical devices include parallelism, metaphor, quotation, antithesis, hyperbole, symbolism, inversion, alliteration, rhetorical question, etc. Please identify the rhetorical devices used in the following sentences. And then reread Text A to find out the rhetoric in use as much as you can.

1. _______________

Does it require that a person hold political office and rule masses? Does it include only those who made a positive impact on society or also those who wreaked devastation and destruction? Do humanitarians or activists who never held office but who had the ability to incite thousands and millions with a vision of a different, better world merit inclusion?

2. _______________

... history was rewritten to portray her as barbarian and immoral rather than as the woman she was: strong and smart,...

3. _______________

... David Ben-Gurion in Israel, Kwame Nkrumah in Ghana, Julius Nyerere in Tanzania, and Ho Chi Minh in Vietnam fought for and achieved their country's independence in different ways.

4. _______________

The stories that follow represent both the best—and the worst—of humanity...

5. _______________

Abigail Adams, wrote in 1776 in a letter to her husband, John Adams... "I desire you would remember the ladies and be more generous and favorable to them than your ancestors."

VI. Translation Practice

Directions: Please put the following sentences into Chinese.

1. Do humanitarians or activists who never held office but who had the ability to incite thousands and millions with a vision of a different, better world merit inclusion?

2. One is a mastermind of terrorist acts that have killed thousands and another a politician who overcame the weight of hundreds of years of slavery and discrimination against blacks to become the first African American elected president of the most powerful country in the world.

3. His national radio address in 1945, the first time many Japanese had heard his voice, announced the country's surrender, and the next year he repudiated his quasi-divine status, helping to engineer Japanese democracy after the war.

4. Upholding the European ideal was but one way in which statesmen and activists have influenced the arc of history without ever possessing formal power.

5. Selecting the most influential anything is inherently fraught with difficulties, and choosing those individuals who have left a lasting impression on the world—both during their times and long after they perished—was nearly impossible.

VII. Writing Workshop

Directions: Please reflect on the following great lines and then write an article on the topic What Would Good Leadership Entail.

得道多助，失道寡助。（《孟子·公孙丑下》）

运筹帷幄之中，决胜千里之外。（司马迁《史记·高祖本纪》）

伯仲之间见伊吕，指挥若定失萧曹。（杜甫《咏怀古迹五首其五》）

决事如流，应物如响。（张九龄《故开府仪同三司行尚书左丞相燕国公赠太师张公墓志铭序》）

……雄姿英发。羽扇纶巾，谈笑间，樯橹灰飞烟灭。（苏轼《念奴娇·赤壁怀古》）

Words for Reference

trustworthy　　tactic　　gallant　　democratic　　ardent

charismatic　　proactive　　authoritarian　　condescending　　fatuous

pretentious　　defiant　　diffident　　hellish