Chapter 2 The Aborigines and Australian history
2.1 Overview
2.1.1 The earliest Australian history and cultural heritage
The word“Aboriginal”was used in Australia to describe its Indigenous peoples as early as 1789.It soon became the common name to refer to all Indigenous Australians.
2.1.1.1 History
Australian Aborigines migrated from Asia more than 30,000 years ago.Though they comprise 500—600 distinct groups, Aboriginal people possess some unifying links.They lived as hunter-gatherers when hunting and searching for food from the land.Aboriginal society was semi-nomadic.The mode of life and material cultures varied greatly from region to region.The greatest population density was to be found in the southern and eastern regions of the continent, the River Murray valley in particular. At the time of first European contact, it has been estimated the absolute minimum pre-1788 population was 315,000, while recent archaeological finds suggest that a population of 750,000 could have been sustained (Waltzman Shapiro, 1979: 51—69).
British colonization of Australia began with the arrival of the First Fleet in Botany Bay in 1788.An immediate consequence of colonization was a pandemic of Old World diseases, including smallpox which is estimated to have killed up to 90% of the local people within the first three years of white settlement.Smallpox would kill around 50% of Australia's indigenous population in the early years of British colonization.A second consequence of British settlement was appropriation of land and water resources, which continued throughout the 19th and early 20th centuries as rural lands were converted for sheep and cattle grazing.
Contact with British settlers, beginning in 1788, led to economic marginalization, a loss of political autonomy, and death by disease for many Aborigines.The so-called“pacification by force”in the late 1880s resulted in a massive depopulation for Aborigines.By the 1940s almost all Aborigines were assimilated into rural and urban Australian society as low-paid laborers with limited rights.In addition, many Aboriginal children were taken from their natural parents by Federal and State Government agencies and church missions, under acts of their respective Parliaments. The removals occurred roughly from 1869 to 1969 (Geoffrey Blainey,1976:34—54). These children were called“The Stolen Generation”.
Commonwealth legislation in 1962 specifically gave Aborigines the right to vote in Commonwealth elections.In the controversial 1971 Gove land rights case, Justice Blackburn ruled that Australia had been terra nullius before British settlement, and that no concept of native title existed in Australian law.
Since the 1980s, Indigenous Australians have found increasing acceptance into mainstream society.In 1976 and 1993 the Australian Government enacted land-rights legislation that has returned to Aborigines a degree of autonomy.In 1992, the High Court of Australia handed down its decision in the Mabo Case, declaring the previous legal concept of terra nullius to be invalid.Court decisions in 1992,1996, and 2006 have recognized Aboriginal property and native title rights.
The Australian Aborigines have their own flag which was originally designed as a protest flag for the land rights movement of Indigenous Australians.The flag has become a symbol of the Aboriginal people of Australia.On 14 July 1995, both the Aboriginal flag and the Torres Strait Islander Flag were officially proclaimed by the Australian government as“Flags of Australia”.The flag is a yellow disc on a horizontally divided field of black and red.The symbolic meaning of the flag colors are Black: Represents the Aboriginal people of Australia; Red: Represents the red earth, the red ochre and a spiritual relation to the land; Yellow: Represents the Sun, the giver of life and protector(Zhang Xianping,2007:217).
A national“Sorry Day”was held on 26th May 1998, a day when all Australians could express their sorrow for the whole tragic episode and to the Stolen generation, and celebrate the beginning of a new understanding.The recent increase in Aboriginal population reflects improved living conditions and a broad and inclusive definition of Aboriginal identity on the part of the Government.Their average standard of living and life expectancy, however, are not comparable with that of most Australians.In 1999 the Australian Government issued an official expression of regret for past mistreatment of Aborigines but, concerned that it would encourage claims for compensation, did not issue the formal national apology sought by Aboriginal leaders.However on the 13th of February 2008, the Government led by Prime Minister Kevin Rudd, issued a formal apology to the Indigenous Australians over“The Stolen Generations”.
2.1.1.2 Languages
The Indigenous languages of mainland Australia and Tasmania have not been shown to be related to any languages outside Australia.There were more than 250 languages spoken by Indigenous Australians prior to the arrival of Europeans.Most of these are now either extinct, with only about fifteen languages still being spoken by all age groups.
Linguists classify mainland Australian languages into two distinct groups: the Pama-Nyungan languages and the non-Pama Nyungan.The Pama-Nyungan languages comprise the majority, covering most of Australia, and are a family of related languages.In the north, stretching from the Western Kimberley to the Gulf of Carpentaria, a number of groups of languages which have not been shown to be related to the Pama-Nyungan family or to each other have been uncovered; these are known as the non-Pama-Nyungan languages.While it has sometimes proven difficult to work out familial relationships within the Pama-Nyungan language family, many Australian linguists feel there has been substantial success (Robert Malcolm Ward Dixon,2002:57—98).
2.1.1.3 Cultures
(1) The Dreamtime
At the time of European settlement, the Indigenous Australians had their own religious traditions founded in their concept of the“Dreamtime”.
Indigenous Australians have a complex oral tradition and spiritual values based upon reverence for the land and a belief in the Dreamtime.
They believe that every person“exists”eternally in the Dreaming.The eternal aspect of this belief is that life continues before and after death.The spirit of the child is culturally understood to enter the developing fetus during the 5th month of pregnancy.When the mother feels the child move in the womb for the first time, it was thought that this was the work of the spirit of the land on which the Mother then stood.
In Australian Aboriginal mythology, the Dreamtime tells the story of things that happened, how the universe came to be, how human beings were created and how the Creator intended for humans to function within the cosmos.Fred Alan Wolf opens“The Dreamtime”, a chapter in his book The Dreaming Universe(1994), with a quote from The Last Wave (1977), an Australian film directed by Peter Weir: “Aboriginals believe in two forms of time; two parallel streams of activity.One is the daily objective activity, the other is an infinite spiritual cycle called the‘dreamtime', more real than reality itself.Whatever happens in the dreamtime establishes the values, symbols, and laws of Aboriginal society.It was believed that some people of unusual spiritual powers had contact with the dreamtime.”(Fred Alan Wolf,1994:8—22)
(2) Music
The various Indigenous Australian communities developed unique musical instruments and folk styles.The didgeridoo, which is widely thought to be a stereotypical instrument of Aboriginal people, was traditionally played only by men of the eastern Kimberley region and Arnhem Land.Clapping sticks are probably the more popular musical instrument, especially because they help maintain rhythm for songs.
Contemporary Australian Aboriginal music is predominantly of the country music genre.Most Indigenous radio stations—particularly in metropolitan areas—serve a double purpose as the local country-music station.More recently, Indigenous Australian musicians have branched into rock and roll, hip hop and reggae.One of the most well known modern bands is Yothu Yindi playing in a style which has been called Aboriginal rock.
(3) Art
Australia has a tradition of Aboriginal art which is thousands of years old, the best known forms being rock art and bark painting.These paintings were usually created in earthy colors, from paint made from ochre.Such ochres were also used to paint their bodies for ceremonial purposes.Traditionally, Aboriginal people have painted stories from their Dreamtime.
Modern Aboriginal artists continue this fine tradition, using modern materials in their artworks.Aboriginal art is the most internationally recognizable form of Australian art.Several styles of Aboriginal art have developed in modern times, including the watercolour paintings of Albert Namatjira; the Hermannsburg School, and the acrylic Papunya Tula“dot art”movement (John Flood,1997:45—89).
2.1.1.4 Indigenous literature
Aboriginal literature in Australia existed long ago but only in oral form.Written literature did not appear until the publishing of Native Legends by David Unaipon, also called“the Father of Aboriginal literature”.However, due to the limitation in education, economic and social status, as well as their living environment, Aboriginal literature did not become prosperous until the 1960s, when the first group of Aboriginal writers, such as Kath Walker (1920—1993), Cloin Johnson (1848—1904) and Kevin Gilbert (1933—1993), published works.
Kath Walker is famous for his We Are Going (1964); Mary Gilmore Medal (1970); and the Jessie Litchfield Award (1975).Cloin Johnson's works include Wild Cat Falling (1965); Doctor Wooreddy's Prescription for Enduring the Ending ofthe World (1983); Doin Wildcat (1988); and Wildcat Screaming (1992).Kevin Gilbert is a 20th century Indigenous Australian activist, artist, poet, playwright and printmaker.He is also a past winner of the National Book Council prize for writers.His most famous book is Living Black: Blacks Talk to Kevin Gilbert(1978) (Sylvia Kleinert and William Neale,2000:23—56).
2.1.1.5 Indigenous education
Education is generally regarded as a key factor in improving outcomes for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people.Improved health and socio-economic status are directly linked to educational participation and achievement.
A number of issues affect participation in education for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples, such as access to educational institutions, financial constraints, and community expectations.While targeted programs aim to improve outcomes in some educational areas, Indigenous students continue to engage in education and training at lower rates of participation and achieve lower levels of educational attainment than other Australian nationals (Zhang Xianping,2007:116).
New words
migrate v．移居
comprise v．包含
distinct a．明显的；独特的
unifying a．使统一的
nomadic a．游牧的
mode n．方式
density n．密度
archaeological a．考古学上的
pandemic a．全国流行的
smallpox n．天花
appropriation n．挪用
convert v．转变
marginalization n．边缘化
autonomy n．自治
pacification n．和解
massive a．大量的
mission n．使命
legislation n．立法
controversial a．有争议的
terra nullius n. [拉]不属于任何人的土地
enact v．颁布
invalid a．无效的
horizontally ad．水平地
proclaim v．公布
ochre n．赭色
episode n．一段情节；插曲
compensation n．补偿
stretch v．伸展
reverence n．尊严；崇敬
fetus n．胎儿
womb n．子宫
mythology n．神话
cosmos n．宇宙
infinite a 无限的
didgeridoo n．迪吉里杜管(澳大利亚土著使用的一种乐器)
stereotypical a．老一套的，陈规的
metropolitan a．大都市的
hip n．臀部
hop n．跳跃
reggae n．瑞格舞(西印度群岛的一种舞蹈及舞曲)
bark n．树皮
ceremonial a．礼仪的
watercolour n．水彩画
acrylic a. [化]丙烯酸的
prescription n．惯例；指示
printmaker n．版画复制匠
outcome n．结果
constraint n．约束，强制
Exercises
1．Explain terms.
(1) the Stolen Generation
(2) the Mabo Case
(3) the National“Sorry Day”
(4) the Australian Aboriginal Flag
(5) Dreamtime
(6) the Aboriginal literature
(7) Indigenous education
2．Answer questions.
(1) What is the significance of the land to Aboriginal people?
(2) What is the impact of colonization on the Indigenous people?
(3) How has the history of Australia excluded Aboriginal people?
3．Questions for further consideration.
(1) What were the patterns of Indigenous settlement of the land?
(2) How has history addressed the theme of Aboriginal resistance?
(3) How is the Aboriginal culture linked to Aboriginal politics?
(4) How have the issues of land rights and native title challenged“national belonging”?
2.1.2 From British colony to an independent nation
Australia is one of the world's oldest landmasses and has been populated for an estimated 60,000 years.Before the arrival of European settlers, Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples inhabited most areas of the continent.Australia's contemporary history is relatively short, with the first European settlement established by England on 26 January 1788.On 1 January 1901, the six colonies became a federation, and the Commonwealth of Australia formed.Since the federation, Australia has maintained a stable, liberal, democratic political system and remains a Commonwealth country.
2.1.2.1 Discovery of Australia
Europeans in the 15th and 16th century stressed the value of global discovery by learning more about the Earth, and in collecting unusual flora and fauna from around the world.Driven by this interest and motivation, Portugal and Spain first made efforts to land on Terra Australis, but failed for some reasons.The Dutch in the 1600s arrived at the Western Australian coast.Maps from this period and the early 18th century often have Australia marked as“New Holland”on account of the voyages of these Dutch explorers.
In the late 17th century the English launched several expeditions to Australia.In 1768, Captain James Cook landed at Botany Bay on the eastern coast, and mapped each place as he went.In 1770, he raised the British Flag and claimed eastern New Holland in the name of New South Wales.Captain Cook discovered Australia in 1770. It is his discoveries that would lead to the British settlement of Australia.
From 1802—1803, Englishmen Matthew Flinders and George Bass circumnavigated the Australian continent and proved that New Holland, New South Wales and Botany Bay were not separate islands, but parts of a single continent.They did not think it proper to name the continent with names of two countries and suggested another name for this ancient landmass—Australia (Stuart Macintyre,2008:5—15).
2.1.2.2 The Colonial Time (1788—1901)
Before 1775, Britain transported convicts into the American colony, but America declared its independence in 1776, this made it necessary for Britain possible to send convicts to Australia.The word convicts, therefore, became the major theme and the beginning of early Australian history.In 1787, Captain Arthur Phillip was appointed governor of New South Wales.He led the First Fleet to set off for Botany Bay to establish a penal settlement in Australia.The First Fleet of 11 ships carrying about 1500 people, half of them convicts, arrived in Sydney Harbor on 26 January 1788, and it is on this day every year that Australia Day is celebrated.
During the late 18th and 19th centuries, large numbers of convicts were transported to the various Australian penal colonies.For 80 years more than 165,000 convicts were transported to Australia.The transportation of convicts ended in 1868.
The economy in the Australian convict settlements was the sheep industry.In 1790, the Englishman John MacArthur first imported flocks of merino sheep to Australia and spread them out across the Western Plains from the settlement of Sydney. As a result, the colonial economy of sheep expanded rapidly.Landowners near Sydney broke into Aboriginal domains and occupied their lands.They, as sheep men, were also called squatters because they“squatted”on Aboriginal lands.Finally they became the“landed gentry”of Australia, and their wealth made them the most powerful economic faction of the population (Zhang Xianping,2007:25).
2.1.2.3 The gold rush (1851—1855)
In 1851, gold was discovered near Bathurst, New South Wales, marking the beginning of the Gold Rush.The gold rush brought many immigrants from Great Britain,Ireland, Europe, North America and China.The gold rush stimulated economic activities in all the south eastern colonies.The years following the gold rush were prosperous: mining companies were making large profits, irrigation systems opened previously infertile areas of land, and overseas markets were being found for agricultural products.The 1850 gold rush attracted a flood of immigration and laid the basis for self-sustaining economic growth.
The term“Mateship”that developed between diggers on the goldfields is still integral to how Australians perceive themselves as Australians.The diggers' open disdain of authority during this time is still a dominant theme in any discussion of Australian history and national identity.
The gold rush of the nineteenth century and the lives of those who worked the goldfields—the“diggers”—are etched into Australian national folklore.There is no doubt that the gold rush had a huge effect on the Australian economy and the development as a nation.
2.1.2.4 The formation of the Federation (1900—1914)
Economic development and favourable conditions hastened the process of the formation of the Federation.There were three main reasons for the idea of“being a nation”as follows.
First, a gold rush was highly significant to Australia's economic development and growth of population.In 1852 alone,370,000 immigrants arrived in Australia and the economy of the nation boomed.The colonies were strong enough in economy to get rid of Britain's control and become independent.
Secondly, in 1870, Australia was faced with Germany and France's military threat in New Guinea and New Caledonia.The Australian colonies recognized the value of establishing, a collective national defense.
Lastly, before the federation, the six colonies were self-governing.They had no relations with each other and functioned more or less like separate countries.Other newly-established federation, such as the United States, Canada and Switzerland inspired the Australian colonies to follow suit.
All these factors laid a foundation for the formation of a federation.On the road to the federation, an important leader, Henry Parkes, called“the Father of the Federation”by Australian people, was five times the Premier of New South Wales and devoted a lifetime in the forefront of the Federation movement.In 1891, his speech“One People, One Flag, One Destiny”affected thousands of federalists.
In 1885, the Federal Council of Australasia was formed, and then the Council held the two conferences respectively in 1890 and 1891.In the early 1890s two meetings established the need for a federation and set the framework.An informal meeting attended by official representatives from the Australasian colonies was held in Melbourne in 1890.The conference debated whether the time was ripe to proceed with a federation and how to structure it.This led to the first National Australasian Convention, which was in Sydney in 1891.In this convention, the first draft of the Australian Constitution was written and adopted.
However, the idea of“being a nation”was not even popular at that time. Referendums were held in June 1898, and it got no approved.In June 1899 the second referendums were held again, and it also failed.Finally in 1900, the vote of referendum was yes in all six colonies.
The Commonwealth of Australia Constitution Act was passed on June 5,1900 and was signed by Queen Victoria on July 9, 1900.The birth of the“Commonwealth of Australia”was formally proclaimed on January 1, 1901.From Henry Parker's 1891 speech“One People, One Flag, One Destiny”to the day of the formation of the federation, over ten years had passed.Australia as a new nation was born (Phillip Knightley,2000:50—57).
2.1.2.5 Australia in the two world wars (1914—1945)
(1) Australia in World War I (1914—1919)
Australia became a newly-established nation and desired to enter the international stage as an independent country.When the First World War started, Australia got involved in the war for the several reasons.
First, although Australia was known as an independent nation, they still held close ties to the“mother country”, Britain.Most thought of themselves as“Australasian Britons”, bound to Britain and a proud junior partner in the empire. 98% of Australia's population was of British descent.Therefore, most felt dedicated towards the empire.
Secondly, if Australia became involved in the war, other countries would have a greater respect for the new nation.Australians had the dual loyalty: one is for the newborn nation and the other is its mother country.
Thirdly, at the time, Andrew Fisher, as the fifth Prime Minister, promised that Australia would stand behind their mother country.He believed this war to be a noble cause where Australians could demonstrate their loyalty.
Lastly, Australian enlisted soldiers wanted to achieve their motives: to serve the King and Empire, to have an adventure, to see the world, and to do the right thing.
In September 1914, the Australian Imperial Force (AIF: all-volunteer Australian Army forces) formed.Its first members sailed for the war, following Britain's declaration of war on Germany.The 1st AIF was a purely volunteer force for the duration of the war. A total of 331,814 Australians were sent overseas to serve as part of the AIF, which represented 13% of the white male population.As a volunteer force, all units were demobilized at the end of the war.
The Battle of Gallipoli against the Turks in 1915 was a typical campaign in the time of the First World War.Because of the failure in strategies of the British military officers, Australian and New Zealand Army Corps (ANZAC) were defeated, but this campaign became a“founding myth”for both Australia and New Zealand.The failure of the Gallipoli battle stimulated the growth of a self-conscious Australian nationalism. Before the First World War, when introducing himself to foreigners, people in Victoria or New South Wales said, “I am a Victorian or New South Wales.”After the First World War, when introducing himself to foreigners, people in Victoria or New South Wales replied, “I am an Australian.”Though Australia as an independent nation was established for more than ten years, Australians before the First World War possessed a weak sense of national identity.The First World War awoke the awareness of Australian nationalism.Anzac Day is still commemorated as a National public holiday in both countries, and is considered one of the most spiritual days of the year in Australia (Zhao Jialian and Fang Ailun,2004:27—28).
The years after the First World War, Australia suffered the Great Depression (1929—1933).With its extreme dependence on exports, particularly primary products such as wool and wheat, Australia was thought to have been one of the hardest-hit countries in the Western world.The depression made the economy near the lowest position, increasing public and private debts at a time of massive unemployment.
(2) Australia in World War II (1939—1945)
Australia fought two wars between 1939 and 1945: one against Germany and Italy as part of the British Commonwealth's war effort and the other against Japan in alliance with the United States and Britain.
World War II contributed to major changes in Australia's economy, military and foreign policy.The war accelerated the process of industrialization, led to the development of a larger peacetime military and began the process with which Australia shifted the focus of its foreign policy to supporting the United States rather than Britain (Wang Zhijin,2004:57).
2.1.2.6 Post-war prosperity
After 1945 Australia entered a boom period.Hundreds of thousands of refugees and migrants arrived in Australia to embrace their new lives.The number of Australians employed in the manufacturing industry had grown steadily.The economy developed strongly in the 1950s with major nation-building projects such as the Snowy Mountains Scheme, a hydro-electric power scheme located in Australia's south-east mountain region.Other developments included the expansion of government social security programs and the arrival of television.Melbourne hosted the Olympic Games of 1956, shining the international spotlight on Australia.
By participating in the two world wars, Australia entered the international stage as an independent nation.The post-war prosperity brought about economic progress in almost every aspect of the society.This signaled the nation coming to its maturity.
New words
convict n．罪犯
theme n．主题
penal a．刑罚的
merino n．美利奴羊
domain n．领域
squatter n．未经允许即住下来的人；新开垦地的定居者
gentry n．贵族
faction n．部分
infertile a．不肥沃的
integral a．完整的，整体的
perceive v．理解；认识到
disdain n．蔑视
etch v．蚀刻；铭记
folklore n．民间传说
federation n．联邦政府
inspire v．鼓舞；激发
forefront n．最前线，最前部
framework n．构架；框架
convention n．大会
referendum n．全民公投
Australasian a．澳大拉西亚人；大洋洲人
Briton n．英国人
empire n．帝国
descent n．血统
dual a．双的
enlist v．征兵
demobilize v．遣散
Turks n．土耳其人
strategy n．战略，策略
commemorate v．庆祝，纪念
devastating a．毁灭性的
accelerate v．加速；促进
prosperity n．繁荣
refugee n．难民
embrace v．包含
scheme n．计划
spotlight n．公众注意的中心
signal v．标志
Exercises
1．Explain terms.
(1) James Cook
(2) Matthew Flinders
(3) the First Fleet
(4) A penal colony
(5) Sheep Industry
(6) The Gold Rush
(7) AIF
(8) Gallipoli
(9) Anzac Day
(10) John Joseph Curtin (11) Robert Menzies
(12) Australian economic boom
2．Answer questions.
(1) Why did Australia become a penal settlement for Britain?
(2) What were the effects of the gold rush that occurred in Australia in the 1850s?
(3) Why was Australia willing to take part in World War I?
3．Questions for further consideration.
(1) Why do we say that the day of 1 January,1901 symbolized that Australia as a nation is born?
(2) Why did the First World War begin the transformation of Australian life from that of six colonies to a united state aware of its new identity?
(3) What contributions did Australia make in World War II?